Still Standing

     A great-grandson wrote his "family tree" the standard way it was to be described in around 750 A.D.  Written in Latin, what could be read by 1662, was translated into English:

      "Concenn was the son of Cattell,  Cattell the son of Brohcmail, Brohcmail the son of Eliseg, Eliseg the son of Guoillauc. Concenn therefore the great-grandson of Eliseg built this stone to his great-grandfather..."

       Written in Welsh, the family tree would be Concenn ap Cattell ap Brohcmail ab Eliseg ap Guoillauc. Stated to the fifth generation, the family tree was the standard necessary to be identified and accepted by your kindred. This would have been especially true if it was to be written on a stone column some 20 feet tall for all to see and agree. Hum, a genealogy recorded as described in the last post dated December 19th. This form of genealogy (kindred) was your name, and stating it legally and correctly to the great-grandfather, protected you and your rights among the many kindreds that surrounded your family. This identity was necessary for your survival, protection, and inheritance. This naming protocol continued until other social groups took control by ways of war and conquest, demanding their own naming system to be used. Unlike the standing stone of Eliseg that remains, the legal naming system of my Celtic ancestors has fallen. What remains of this proud column is shown below.

      

      A detailed description can be found in Annals and Antiquities of the Counties and Families of Wales by Thomas Nicholas, Vol. I, p.388, first published London 1872. The Latin inscription as translated in 1662 is given. A good description can also be found on page 36 of Heritage in Wales by David Robinson, first published 1989 by Queen Anne Press.

Good and Bad Behavior

       From the earliest Celtic writings (Ogam), the documentation of your father was paramount. (see last post) Regrouping one's family around the original settlement of the ancestors was part of the survival mode of the day. Members of a family group (kindred) consisted of those descending from the same great-grandfather, and sons of their father had equal claim upon the meadows, the woodlands, and the growing lands. (arable land) The sons could divide the land equally or work it together. If no sons, the land would descend to brothers, then cousins, and then to the second cousins. It was a man's standing in a network of kindred rather than his standing as the citizen of a state which determined his social status, his economic rights, and legal obligations.

      As my Celtic ancestors grouped themselves, and their language helped unite them as a multi-kindred society, who your father was gave social identity. At birth, a father would officially present his son to a gathering of the leaders, giving a single name like Henry. The new son would then be recognized and accepted as a member of the family clan as Henry son of, say David. The leaders of the tribe would then add David who was the son of Rice, who was the son of Peter, who was the son of Edward. The new son's name became "Henry ap David ap Rice ap Peter ab Edward". This became Henry's social security card for the rest of his life since each of the clan became responsible for Henry's good and his bad behavior.

P.S. Each son of the same kindred group would have their own first name followed by the name of their biological father. Then their remaining name would follow the same descent from "Edward" as described above. The word for this social structure is "agnate". My Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary (now much older) p.23, defines this word as a relative whose kinship is traceable exclusively through males. A genealogist would say a paternal kinsman. So would those who become Welsh would say.

Written In Stone

      If you were asked to write in a few words what you would want placed on your own tombstone, what would you write? "A good person", "a friend to all", "smiled a lot", etc., etc., etc., might be examples. What would you want future generations to remember about you? My Celtic ancestors began to write their examples many years ago. This was a giant leap into the known world since writing was taboo, and memory was the only way to transmit the past into the present. [see post 5 November] It must have been difficult to get this writing thing going since no pen and paper, and no experience! What would you do, and how would you do it? Let's see, make up your own alphabet, use this iron chisel, and put it all on stone starting from bottom to top, sounds like a good set of ideas.  Today it is called Ogam, and this is a photo of such a difficult task.

      It is a carving on stone written in notches diagonally across one edge. Can you believe it, what a group of doodlers! The language has 15 consonants in three groups of five, and 5 vowels. It appears to be a ceremonial stone, and read from bottom to top. The following is my attempt to understand what is written.

      It translates "degomacimocoidoetoi", or as I would understand, Dego Mac Imoco Idoetoi, meaning this Dego was the son of (mac), Idoetoi. A son writes a memorial to his father. What a deal, the first written Celtic script was genealogy. It fits in my pocket.

      The Alphabet is given in a text titled Celtic Languages And The Beginning of Literature , (chap. 9, p.207). The picture of the stone is from The beginnings of  Christianity , p. 4. It is gleaned from these texts, that about 300 inscriptions exist, with 40 in Wales, a few in Scotland and Isle of Man. Genealogy from the start and, written in stone.

Llan...The Where

       It was most likely that during the first two centuries after the Roman Empire collapse, the monastic movement came to life for my Celtic ancestors.  The gradual development of distinctive languages for each major Celtic group was also just beginning and, the Welsh language first showed itself in early written form around the middle of the sixth century. (see post of 29 October) Now when the written word "Llan" came to be, it must have occurred about this time, since the clan leaders certainly wanted their name to be associated and remembered to future generations down the family tree. The church and its enclosure, that was sponsored by the patriarch, got their name attached to this place. Llanedwen was the place name supported and founded by Edwen. Llangernwy was the place that patriarch Gernwy gave the church its beginning. Just how many and where all these enclosures were located are shown in the following map. It shows the present 13 counties of Wales and the number of place names for Llan. The total number for Llan is n=529. The range is 5-69 and the average (mean) is 41.

      Using my long, lost statistical skills, the 95th percentile is 27-55. Looking above, three counties colored orange, have numbers greater than 55 and, two have numbers less than 27 which are colored green.  To me this would indicate the southern counties would have a set of reasons for this higher number of Llan place names.  Likewise, the northern counties would have their own reasons for the numbers falling less than 3 standard deviations from the average of 41. My Celtic ancestors (Deceangl)  shown the least numbers of Llan place names of all 13 counties. What is up with this? Where are all the enclosed church places?

Llan. . . .

      From Llanaber (p.57) to Llan-y-wern (p.71), Welsh place-names, starting with the letters "Llan", are identified by their geographic locations in Wales. More than 550 sites are located on the National Grid references in the text A Gazetteer of Welsh Place-Names.  The first edition was first published 1957, Second edition 1958, Third edition 1967, and it was reprinted in 1975. Paperback editions were reprinted in 1989 and 1996, and my copy edited by, Elwyn Davies 1967, and its cover is shown.

           Now how did all these names of the villages and towns first get started? This was the question in my mind, especially since "Llan" means "church, enclosure" (glossary p. xxxiv). Also, my Celtic ancestors became involved in the Monistic movement spreading throughout the land 400 A.D.-800 A.D. and, I asked what the connection might be. My conclusions are coming.

Significant

      Recognizing the impact that the monastic movement had upon my Celtic ancestors was an important step in understanding my own Jones surname that was many centuries yet to come. However, it was during the several hundred years after the Roman Empire disappeared from the Island, that my ancestors needed to regroup and collect their family belongings as they were before the Romans arrived. Solitary places and small family groups descending from a common ancestor (kin) were the usual social construct. Indomitable local independence was assumed, and the traditional legends and heroes then returned. Groups of villages with the "sameness of blood" lived on the land that their common ancestors had settled generations before their existence. 

      The Celtic tribes from Hibernia (Ireland) did not get to enjoy a Roman military occupation like most of the other Celtic tribes. It seems that their form of monasticism flourished in a hundred or more convents, and their enthusiasm helped to spread monastic settlements all over the place, including my Celtic families' land. Columba (Colum Cille) founded Iona [563 A.D.] and, his disciple Aidan, founded Lindisfarne 653 A.D., a century later.  All told, this monastic movement had significant impact on the growth and continual survival of my Celtic ancestors. Needless to say, each Celtic group to join this new attitude of life had their own account of this activity. These accounts can be found:

      For the tautha (Ireland) A History of Ireland, by Peter and Fiona Somerset Fry, Barnes & Noble, N.Y. 1988. Chap. 2 Celts and Christians pp. 22-43 and Monastic Community p. 39.  St Patrick, St. Colum Cille (Columba)-

      For the clan (Scotland) The Lion In The North - One Thousand Years Of Scotland's History, by John Prebble, Dorset Press, N.Y., 1971, reprinted 1983, my edition, 1986. Celtic Church pp.22-31. St. Nynia taught Southern Picts p. 22, and St. Andrew-

      For the kindred (Wales) A History of Wales by John Davies, Penguin Books, London, 1994 first published in Welsh Hanes Cymru 1990. Celtic Church pp.72-79. St Dyfed (David) The figure on page 74 shows the geographic location of my Celtic family's connection Llanynys! The cover of my copy is shown.

            A significant understand it is.

     

    

To Memory

       Why did my Celtic ancestors not write anything down? This was a question I would often ask my thought processes as I climbed through my ancestor's branches. My American education tried to teach me that this was the "Dark Ages", and no one here could find a light switch. These folks just stumbled around in this darkness and could never figure-out how to write since it was pretty dark. Now, one who was there [Julius Caesar] wrote down his own observations regarding this observation:

      "They are said there to learn by heart a great number of verses, accordingly some remain in the course of training twenty years. Nor do they regard it lawful to commit these to writing, though in almost all other matters, in their public and private transactions, they use Greek characters. That practice they seem to me to have adopted for two reasons; because they neither desire their doctrines to be divulged among the mass of the peoples, nor those who learn, to devote themselves the less to the efforts of memory, relying on writing, since it generally occurs to most men, that, in their dependence on writing, they relax their diligence in learning thoroughly, and their employment of the memory".

Book VI 11-28 where Caesar provides a brief ethnographic essay on the religion, customs and political structures of the peoples of Gaul and Germany. [p. 141 of Mellor: presented post of April 30th]

      To memory it is.

Date of Birth

      Beginnings are part of the human experience. For example, genealogy starts many in the family tree with the date of birth. A record of beginning it is. However, language is certainly a different subject for beginnings. Where does one start to count the collection of voices that join together to share and transmit human thought? When does it become enough voices joining together that the unity of a group produces their unique form of communication? For me, the Welsh language was one sound that brought many questions to mind. A chronology of the Celtic roots has been shown in a previous post, dated 11 October, and a comparison of words for several languages shown in post dated 19 October. In the book titled The New Companion to the Literature of Wales, edited by Meic Stephens is presented a helpful discussion on the Welsh language. [pp.771-773] Here it is stated:

      "By the second half of the sixth century the parent Brythonic language had registered changes sufficiently marked to justify its being regarded as the period in which Early Welsh, Early Cornish and Early Breton were born." 

      Hum...a date of birth my genealogy nose would say. The cover of my copy is shown.

      The book is published by University Of Wales Press, Cardiff, 1998.

Good Vibrations

       When one wants to speak, several things have to occur. The human breath must past between two vibrating membranes called the vocal cords. This air flow must then move toward the pharynx, to the mouth cavity, then heading all sorts of different ways against the tongue, palate, upper teeth, and lips. This movement of the air we breath is to produce the sounds that one wishes to utter. Phonation to articulation it is formally called, and one hopes the sound produced arrives to a receptive ear.

      Each culture follows this process producing a variety of languages. The sounds generated can, and often do, differ dramatically between each language. Even though everyone sees a mom and dad, brother and sister, and many other things that the human experience brings our way, it is usually a different sound. Needless to say, the words pronounced for the same subject can bounce off the ear drum of a different culture, and be difficult to recognize or repeat. This phenomena became extremely important for my own Jones surname tree climbing when my Kentucky, Bluegrass tongue came to find my Welsh roots and their Celtic origins. Man, what a difference my ear drums played when this language beat their rhythms. Not only did the sounds, but the words and writings of this unique language presented a number of brick walls to hunting my ancestors further back in time.

      The following table tries to show some of the different words for the same subject. I call it "Words of Life".

      The first column lists the English spelling for different family units. Looking to the last column it shows, the familiar words and sounds that come from the precursor of my spoken tongue, the Anglo-Saxon. Following along the columns right to left, you can see the words from the Greek, French, and Latin languages. Then you see the Welsh words. Not even close they appear written. You might imagine my English ear when these words played against my ear drums. How do you explore your genealogy?  I will need to make them good vibrations instead.

Community of Voices

      Language is an integral part of the culture glue that binds people together and signals their presence. It (language) can be defined as the words, their pronunciation, and the methods of combining them used and understood by a considerable community. Interestingly, the word derives from langue (fr.) meaning tongue. [Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary p. 641] 

      The language of my Celtic ancestors tells its own story from long, long ago. Starting in the Caucasus mountains (a divide between Europe and Asia) traces of a patriarchal clan system began. A tribal organization of society [Ency. Brit., Vol 2, p. 965] produced four different groups of languages. Indo-European is the branch defined as the beginning family of languages that my ancestors' Celto-Italo-Tocharian derives. Lots of branches from this point onward as the following diagram shows.

      My Celtic (to become Welsh) ancestors certainly had a lot of voices along the way. Their voice is thought to be pronounced focused on the bi-labial enunciation of the sounds "P" and "B", thus P-Celtic. On the other side of the Irish sea they focused on the sound "Q". I guess that this is where the saying "...mind your P(s) and Q(s)" is derived?!  At any rate, the first Welsh is believed to have begun around 500 A.D.[en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welsh_language] meaning, my folks had to regroup, reorganize, and voice a different way to communicate among the family group. This was because the Romans had left the country, and their vocal sounds [Latin] stopped echoing among the hills. A new community of voices began to sing.

P.S. For those who might want more discussion or more in-depth information, a book by L.R. Palmer titled Descriptive And Comparative Linguistics A Critical Introduction, Faber & Faber, London, 1972, may be helpful. The cover of my copy is shown.

Hereditary Property

       One of the earliest books which directed my attention to the Welsh origin of the surname Jones was titled An Historical Atlas Of Wales From Early to Modern Times. It was published in 1967 and written by William Rees. Lots of maps, tables, figures and content was there. It is no wonder why maps are high on my list of the thought processes. [Published by Faber and Faber, London.] In this text staring on page 21 is the topic named "The Celtic Church In Wales". Little did I know how important this content would be to my now 60 + years of tree climbing. The important concepts are written:

      "The movement had its rise in Egypt whence it spread by way of the Mediterranean to Gaul and eventually to the British Isles where it seized the imagination of the Celtic west...". 

                                               (Sounds like my last several posts.)

      Going forward it reads:

      "Inspired by the new movement, members of ruling families, and others of humbler origin adopted the religious life of a hermit or attracted to themselves disciples, to form in due course the nucleus of a monastic community of Celtic type."

      The important concept on page 22 reads:

      "The monastery with its revenue became the hereditary property of the family of the founder, one or other member usually exercising the priestly office."

      It was this last statement that helped break down several brick walls in my ancestor discovery. What a deal, hereditary property. I certainly did not recognize or understand this family dynamic in 1967.

The Great Transition

      The 300 years after the Roman Empire dissolved, my Celtic ancestors faced a number of challenges. "Who's on first?" would be one of those questions that would need to be solved. For hundreds of years the Roman military had kept things in check. Roman administration maintained all the social considerations. Roman life gave all a new way to experience this culture from all sorts of ways. The line of authority was straight forward. As long as you went along with most things, they were settled long before some event started.  The power to influence or command thought, opinion, and behavior was always clear to those who might question such authority. Wow, the rug had been pulled out from under my kindred and they would have to figure out this new set of circumstances. It was not long before the Roman empire fell apart that this new religion [Christianity] had become the state religion. It seems this new group had taken over the authority in all the previous Roman 28 Provinces. I think these are called diocese now, and there was a person in charge of each. Latin still seemed their language, and education was encouraged and supported. Maybe we should check into this new authority my ancestors might think. It would certainly change things around here. 

      The following text discusses this transition period beginning on page 269 through page 286 for those who might be interested in knowing more about this history.  The cover of my copy is shown.

       It was first published 1953 and again in 1975 by HarperCollins Publishers, N.Y.

Common Lives

       After some 400 years of Roman military occupation, administration, and social control, my Celtic ancestors found that they were to look to their own defense.  Other folks around the Empire faced the same collapse of authority, and new aggressive tribes coming down from the northeast.  These tribes wanted to take away everything. Speaking of taking everything, the center of the world, the city Rome, was sacked not once but three times. Can you believe it? What is one to do and survive? Let's see, here is a plan. First, give everything you have to the needy folks around you.  Nothing to take from you if you have given it all away. Second, isolation seems a good idea since fewer angry folks would be around. Third, find a unique place to live such that no one would think to look for you there. Maybe one or two individuals could join you or at least live close by. Martin of Tours (d. 397) has given us a good example. Maybe we could wear the same type of cloths and cut our hair the same way. It would be hard to tell us apart. What about the women among us?  What could we call ourselves? Monks for the men, and Nuns for the women might work? Hmm...common lives together.

      The following map shows the when and where the monasteries had their beginning.

      Starting near the coastline; Marseille, Lerins, and way up north Whithon, were founded around the same time ca. 400 A.D. (marked orange on the map).  Marmouter was earlier (marked pink), and a large number marked green formed during the time 500 A.D. Note that most during this period were in Ireland. (St. Patrick had something to do with that). The following 100 years saw a cluster of places being founded in France and north Britain.

     

 Map is found p. 43 in Atlas of Medieval Europe Edited by Angus Mackay with David Ditchburn, Routledge, London, 1997.

Light In The Darkness

       Growing up in the heart of the Bluegrass during the 1950's had many adventures. One was to visit that great hole in the ground called Mammoth Cave, the world's longest known cave system. Mom, Dad, and my older brother made such a trip spelunking to the very bottom. Here our guide asked all to put out their lights and experience total darkness.  Sure, I thought, "no such a thing exists." Boy was I wrong! Out goes all the lights and total darkness there was. Poking myself in the eye trying to see my hand was certainly an adventure. Then, the glow of a cigarette tip came to be seen somewhere out into the darkness. Man did it seem to light things up. Never such a sight it was which still appears in my memory bank.

      Some years later, my college text A History of Civilization, Volume One, Third Edition, begins chapter 5, p. 173:

        "The period from the collapse of the Roman Empire in the West down to about 1000 A.D. provides an outstanding example of the breakdown of a whole civilization. Historians used to call these early medieval centuries from 500 to 1000 the Dark Ages."

      Certainly, I did not question such statements until my genealogy tree climbing brought me to my Celtic ancestors. What did happen after the breakdown of the Roman Empire for my Jones family ancestors? Humm...foundations for new generations became apparent. Gallic monasticism must be one of those lights in the darkness.

religio legitima

      It was before the withdrawal of the Roman Legions and their administration that Christianity found its way onto the Island. Some believe it was advanced by persecution under Decius (249A.D.-251 A.D.) and later by Diocletian (248 A.D.-305 A.D.). By 314 A.D. three church leaders are recorded among those who participate in the Council of Arles [text by Peter Blair, p.146]. From this unpleasant beginning, Christianity founded a number of communities leading to its gradual growth. How and when this development took place is uncertain, but one aspect was the monks of various rules of order. This discovery was a significant part of understanding the survival of my Celtic ancestors and played a significant role in finding my own Jones surname family.  A series of texts can be found where this monostatic system is discussed.  However, the following texts discuss broadly the onset as the Romans finally called religio legitima. 

      Salway, P., The Oxford Illustrated History Of Roman Britain , pp. 235-242. [see post of May 7]

      Blair, P.H., Roman Britian and Early England, pp.145-148. [see post of May 28]

      Jones, B.,Mattingly, An Atlas Of Roman Britain, pp.294-305. [see post June 3]

      The following shows the cover of Later Roman Britain, by Stephen Johnson. It has not been shown in previous posts (published by Paladin Grafton Books, London, 1982:

            The discussion can be found pp. 45-47, pp. 211-219. The plan of the church and cemetery at Icklingham, Suffolk is found on p. 167.

Pull The Wool

       Another important factor in the survival of my Celtic ancestors was wool. This item was woven into the fiber of their existence for generations. After bread and meat, it was perhaps the most time-consuming activity. From the pasture lands in the hills, to be driven down to get a haircut, giving the haircut, and then going into winter quarters in the flat lands; it would have taken the Deceangli and the Cornovii figuring out this endeavor in a cooperative manner. For hundreds of years they had a summer home and a winter home which were necessary to maintain this activity on a seasonal basis. Weaving all this wool during the winter months gave them something to put on their bodies. Now just imagine having to clothe 6,000 men at any one time.

      Peter Salway in his book The Oxford Illustrated History of Roman Britain (a must read for those with an interest) gives a comprehensive account of this period, and on page 459 gives a picture (mental) of this activity. Speaking of picture, the following is certainly symbolic of wool:

      Here stands sheep grazing upon one of the oldest monuments of the human experiment. Standing on the very top of this Bronze-Age cairn in NW Wales (Bryn-celli-ddu, Menai Bridge. Anglesey) is the wool carrying sheep saying, still here after all this time, guess we pulled the wool over your eyes.

                       [picture taken from The Shell Guide to Wales, p. 260, published 1969]

      It is also of interest that the word Briton means a "cloth clad" person. [Celtic Britain (4th edition), p. 212.]

Sow, Grow, and Harvest

       My Cornovii family ancestors needed a few things on the side of their continual existence. They must have had a significant number of these factors since the Roman military administration built them a capital called Wroxeter (Viroconium Cornoviorum). A chief factor must have been the feeding of 12,000 men and their empty stomachs after a hard days march. Barley wheat was one aspect, since the Cornovii had tended this staple for hundreds of years. Keeping all the herds of sheep and cattle out of the wheat fields was a joint effort with the Deceangli on the western side of the land bridge. [A detailed account of feeding the troops can be found in the book by John Peddle pp.30-32, Invasion The Roman Conquest Of Britain.] Needless to say, the Cornovii folks must have been one of the most "Romanized" of the Celtic tribes seeing all the new fangled baths, aqueducts, forums, and the like. Certainly you might want to check out this new type of living. In 212 A.D. you could actually become a Roman citizen and sign-up all your sons in that outstanding army. Wow, some exciting ways to "go along to get along".

      A detailed drawing of Wroxeter can be found on page 167, An Atlas Of Roman Britain by Jones and Mattingly.

      The concept of Romanization can be found The Oxford Illustrated History Of Roman Britain by Peter Salway, pp.337-348.

Factors Involved

      My Celtic y-DNA managed to make it through 400 years or so of Roman military occupation. The previous posts starting from Inigo Jones (1573-1625) on December 15, 2021, begins my JONES family's story. Each post tries to present the various factors involved leading to my Celtic origins. This post will try to begin summarizing the most important. If interested, you can scroll back to read the posts.

      The first factor is that of geography. My Deceangli folks maintained their family identity by mostly hiding out in the hills of the Vale of Clywd. Their tribal land was hidden behind the end of the world. [see post dated 24 May titled "World's End"] They also had the least contact with the Romanization of the rest of the occupied Island [see post dated July 2nd titled "The Villas"] Their main contact point was Deva (Chester) with more than 6,000 military residing there most of the days. They needed to keep my Celtic ancestors bringing their cattle to market which was necessary to feed all these empty stomachs. [see posts of 1 April titled "The Herds" and 5 June titled "Where's The Meat"] My Cornovii tribe had much more direct contact with the Roman occupation having a special settlement build by their occupiers called Wroxeter. Here the Romans would need all the wool crossing the land bridge [post 30 March titled "The Land Bridge"] to help keep them warm on those cold winter nights. [see posts 19 February "Shearing Sheep", 24 February "Sheep Breeds", 4 March "By The Numbers", and 10 March titled "Liver Rot"] Both Celtic tribal groups had maintained their existence by bringing their sheep and cattle together to this land bridge for a few years before these Roman folks showed their faces. [see post 12 March titled "Location, Location, Location"]

          

Go Along To Get Along

      Climbing my own Jones surname family tree, it would often come to mind what it took to survive through all the generations. At times, it was certainly more difficult when things joined together leading to questions about how my Y-DNA was going to make it?  This was certainly true during the 400 years of Roman military occupation that my Celtic ancestors kept that DNA flowing down the branches.

      Remembering a friend that I played softball during my younger years (now more than half a century ago) a thought came to mind. It was called slow pitch, and our Church league usually did pretty well. A good pitcher he was, and could get the ball over the plate a variety of ways. Usually playing shortstop, we would carry on during a game. The amazing thing was that this fellow only had one arm. It didn't seem to bother him catching, throwing, battling, and all the things that I took for granted. Never really asking how he lost his right arm just below the elbow, he would often tell me, "go along to get along". This 400 hundred year period my Celtic ancestors shared the game of life with thousands of military players, they would have certainly had to agree with my friend.

      Our old friend Tacitus of posts May 13th and 14th wrote of those on the Island:

           "Nature has willed that every man's children and kindred should be his dearest objects. Yet these are torn from us by conscriptions to be slaves elsewhere. Our wives and our sisters, even though they may escape violation from the enemy, are dishonored under the names of friendship and hospitality. Our goods and fortunes they collect for their tribute, our harvests for their granaries. Our very hands and bodies, under lash and in the minds of insult, are worn down by the toil of clearing forest and morasses. Creatures born to slavery are sold once for all, and are, moreover, fed by their masters, but Britain is daily purchasing, is daily feeding, her own enslaved people."

      How would you get along?

Birth and Death Simultaneously

      Just as the birth of a new state religion (Christianity) was being instituted by the Emperor Constantine, (Edit of Milan 313 A.D.), the very city he resided (Rome) was about to reach its death.  In 330 A.D., he transferred the seat of government to Byzantium (Constantinople), and the center of Roman glory was never to be the same. At least, for the first time, all roads did not lead here.

      Religious truth versus political power became a new dynamic. By 392 A.D., Theodosius declared all heathen sacrifices to be high treason. Other folks questioned this Roman Empire thing, and began all sorts of problems for this city. (Rome) All Legions were called home to try and defend this Empire. This withdrawal produced a new set of problems for my Celtic ancestors. The 20th Legion stationed around my families' homeland was one of the last to leave the Island. Left alone to defend themselves in 410 A.D., they faced their own invaders the Picts and Scots (Irish). Retired military folks and civic administrators tried to organize the home folks. The sons of my family had gone with their Legion. What were the remaining Celtic folks to do?

Moving On Up

      From the mountain cave of Antony (272 A.D.) in Egypt, to the central monastic life of Martin at Tours (ca, 371 A.D.), it took roughly a century to get things moving toward my Celtic ancestors. The life of both these men are presented in Butler's Lives of The Saints, edited by Michael Walsh. The cover of my copy is shown.

      On page 16 it states that Anothy lived to 105 years. Not bad for a fellow who lived on bread and water some of the time. Now Martin of Tours (called Gaul at his time) is given a few more pages, 371- 373. It appears he was a soldier in the Roman army before he took this new belief called Christianity. No telling who might join this movement called monks. Bet you a lot of these folks were introverts. The move of Christianity to the northwest section of my family's mountains took a bit more time to arrive.  The arrival of this belief system and a discussion is found in the text by Salway (pp.236-239, and pp. 512-529) which is presented in the post of May 7th. It can also be found in the text by Jones and Mattingly (pp. 295-298) shown on post June 3rd, and the text by Blair (pp.145-147) shown on post May 28th. Moving on up from Egypt to the NW section of Wales is yet to come. 

  

Two Different Pathways

       The three hundred or so years before this new sect (Christianity) became the official religion of the Roman world, there were many difficult experiences. The call to follow Jesus began around Jerusalem ca. 33 AD.  and spread to Judea, then to Sameria, and then to Antioch in Syria, where they were first identified as Christians ca. 43-44 A.D. Considered aliens in the Roman world, they spread about in various directions often hiding themselves among the masses. One pathway went north, and another pathway went south. The northern route from Syria, to Derbe/Lystra, to Phrygia/Galatia, to Mysia and Macedonia took the more densely populated pathway. The southern route from Jerusalem, Alexandria and Libia, then to Cyrenaica, was much less occupied by dense populations.

      My Celtic ancestors came under the influence of the southern route. Far removed from the bustle of mankind, the first of this Alexandra influenced movement, (called Hellenistic), was an Egyptian named Antony. (d.356 A.D.) He sought solitude in the wilderness of upper Egypt. Ascetic it was called. Making isolation in caves first choice, he believed this was the best place for contemplation about this new religion. Of course he was soon joined by others which began to gain momentum, founding a system of societies called "Monks". Interestingly, the word comes from the Greek word monos meaning alone. Thus Antony has become known the father of all monks. A monastery became a cluster of these individuals which moved across the North African coast. 

     The following figure shows the two pathways looking down from above. The Mediterranean Sea is colored gray. The horseshoe shaped land is colored white. North is the top, and south is toward the bottom of the figure.

Sand In The Carburetor

      In 293 A.D. "The Tetarchy"  began the  rule of four. Everything became the ruler's property, and this laid the foundation for the many conflicts between the four distinct geographical regions. At this time, most folks were told the supreme deity was considered the Emperor. Now there were four? Lots of trouble here to try and sort all this out. Now a new sect, first called Christian, at Antioch in the province of Syria, had some real problems with all this deity stuff. The Roman governor of this city resided here, and can you believe it, all this developed right under the nose of the Roman's administration. It was Diocletian some 250 years later from these early days of this movement, that decided the Empire needed to get rid of all these folks. Feeling that the growing sect was not following the dogma of  Roman theology, he commanded all were to persecuted. This persecution included ordering their meeting places (churches) to be razed to the ground, and their writings (Scriptures) destroyed by fire. All those in high places would loose their place, and any household folks who continued to profess Christianity would be deprived of their liberty. Ironically, some 37 years later, under a new ruler called Constantine, this persecuted sect became the new Religion of the State. A contemporary of Constatine, named Eusebius, wrote his account of all this turmoil. Sort of like having sand in the carburetor. The cover to my copy follows:

    In his book, he describes the ordeals of 146 martyrs, and the teaching of 47 heretics. Translated by G.A. Williamson and published by Dorset Press, N.Y., 1965, it has a helpful introduction p. 7 - p.29. The appendixes include A.) Emperors and Bishops, B.) Bishoprics, C.) Martyrdoms, D.) Heretics, and E.) Sources Quoted or Summarized, pp.415-424.  The last appendix E. is a good source for those who are interested in references of the day. 

Too Big For Their Britches (Toga)

       Starting halfway through their military interest in the homeland of my Celtic ancestors, the Roman world recognized they had finally gotten much too fat and sassy as the new world order. Civil wars, invasions, multiple changes in Caesars, and a new religion called Christianity, became more and more involved in the change of clothes being worn around the 28 provinces. When a fellow called Diocletian was named Emperor in 285 A.D., he promoted another to become a Caesar, thus dividing their world into a western and eastern empire. Not long after, in 293 A.D., two more officers were added, and "The Tetrarchy" [rule of four] was established. The Roman world would never be the same. Can you imagine, four courts, four Imperial armies, and four military governments. Everything became the ruler's property, and the Courts and Officials consumed all private wealth. Spain, Gaul, and Britain formed one of these provinces, and began revising its education and culture. Starting 303 A.D., persecution of the growing Christian order began in earnest.

The Villas

      Moving about in a brand new world took an abundance of caution, and a lot of adjustments. Tacitus [55 AD-117 AD] writes:

      "The Britons themselves bear cheerfully the conscription, the taxes, and the other burdens imposed on them by the Empire, if there be no oppression. Of this they are impatient; they are reduced to subjection, not as yet to slavery." [Mellor (ed.), p.400]

      Wow, not as yet to slavery, but more like subjection! The definition is one under authority, and it was the Roman military administration that dished out the authority. By the time of Tacitus, the Island was settled with all kinds of rectangular structures called Villas. The Legions had produced thousands of retirees, and many decided to settle down with their families about them. The following map shows the distribution of the Roman Villas as discovered. [Jones and Mattingly, p.241]

         The round dark circles represent the Villas, and their geographic locations. The orange line shows the demarcation along central Britain.  To the east, The Romans seemed to feel safe enough to settle down and live their lives. To the west, and northwest of this orange line, my Celtic ancestors hid out in the hills. The Dee and Severn rivers are outlined in blue, and the land bridge between. My Celtic world (the subjected) exchanged their salt, iron, meat, bread, and all things needed by the Romans (the authority). The Romanization of my Celtic ancestors would be dramatically different on both sides of the orange line.

      Here again is the map which shows the Celtic tribes on the western side of the orange line. My direct Celtic (Jones) kin groups, the Deceangli (Vale of Clwyd and Dee) and the Cornovii (the Shopshire plain) are positioned.

      Deva (Chester) was the main authority for my Deceangli, and Wroxeter for my Cornovii ancestors. Not many Villas here!

A Round Peg Into A Square Hole

       A round peg into a square hole would not seem plausible. This task would certainly be difficult if you were to assume the pegs and squares of equal size. Now if the square hole is much larger than the round peg it would be possible to place the smaller peg into a much larger hole. It would seem that my Celtic ancestors faced conceptually the same sort of task. How would they fit their round family home into this new, much larger, Roman home? My ancestors had a couple of hundred years to sort things out.

      The following two figures demonstrate the actual dynamics that took place. The drawings are modified from another of my favorite references by Barri Jones and David Mattingly, p.242. [see post of June 3rd] The first figure shows the Celtic family farm as it existed with circular designed structures.

     This second figure shows the square [actually rectangular] Roman styled homes in the exact same family farm, some 200 years later.

      What a deal! Circular to square [actually rectangular] is the new way of living in this "Romanized" existence. You might even have a sturdy wall to lean against. 

Being a Boar

      Often during my many, many years of Jones surname tree climbing, which brought me to the northwestern area of Wales, which brought me to my distant Celtic ancestors, which brought me to wonder how these last folks managed to keep that Y-DNA flowing. After more than 100 years of fighting the Roman invaders, they (the Celts) seem to settle in the same area [World's End] and, kept the DNA moving down all the tree branches. Early in the tree branches it became known that the bronze boar occupied an important symbol on coins, helmets, shields, and even cooking pots. [p. 64, Heroes of The Dawn see post April 23] In addition, Laing in his text Celtic Britain, p.24 states "The original boar had been some kind of totem, designed to protect its owner." [see post April 19] Finally, and most significant, is the reference to a 2nd-century BC bronze cult wagon from Celtic Spain showing a rider and his hound chasseing a boar on horseback. [p. 68, Heroes of The Dawn]. Now imagine my surprise, when just this week, the following image came into focus.

      Could this connection [boar to boar] be answer to one of my Jones surname Y-DNA quandaries? 

      The 20th Legion (Valeria Victrix) was one of the four brought to the Island. It had service in Spain, and was one of the last Legions to leave Deva (Chester) at the withdrawal of Roman forces. Could some of the 20th be of Iberian Celtic descent, and share some of the same Y-DNA? They would certainly share the same totem. My Deceangli ancestors who occupied more than 400 years with these folks providing salt, iron, and a lot of beef! Maybe, they shared more than tribute.

See post May 10th for the reference to Invasion The Roman Conquest of Britain by Peddie, p.58, p.180.

New Neighbors

     So there goes the neighborhood, as some of my Celtic ancestors might have thought. All these thousands and thousands of men, 17 to 45 years of age, showing up at your doorstep at all times of the day and night. Our group of villages are no match for all these new stone ramparts. They even have new, fancy things like theaters, warm baths, and special ways to eat called banquets. Maintaining and securing their supply lines go right through the neighborhood with stone roads connecting the military bases. They even planned a civitas cornoviorum (Viroconium) to help my Cornovii ancestors adjust to all these new developments. It was to become a new capital city for these folks, which came to be called Wroxeter. Key to participation in the new Roman world was Latin. Learning this new language of law and public administration was necessary to survival of the family. Let's allow the kids to go to their schools and see which way the learning curve progresses. We might even learn how to write our thoughts. Our children may be the future to this complex world of new neighbors.

Camping Ground

       Around the time of Tiberius [42 BC - 37 AD] the military might of Rome consisted of 25 Legions totaling 400,000 men in arms. Essentially, the known world became the camping ground for these military units. Thus, the outlying provinces became the life blood of the Empire. Be plundered or pay tribute peacefully was the moto. 

      My Celtic ancestor's small geographic part of this world was remote and peripheral to the many other provinces administered by this military organization. Of the four military camps established by the Legions, where this world ended, two anchored the land bridge shared by my folks. Deva (Chester) to the north, and Viroconium (Wroxeter) to the south. The following map, first referenced June 3rd, shows the two stations associated with the military control established between my two Celtic family groups.

      The green arch around Deva (Chester) suggests the major control area of the Decenagli. Iron and salt were key elements produced here. The orange arch around Wroxeter shows the area involving the Celtic Cornovii tribe, where sheep and corn were major products. The next map shows the geographic relationship to Old Oswestry, which was the center of Celtic activity on the land bridge connecting the two kin groups.

      The green and orange colors follow the new, dynamic, structures called Roman roads, that became a way to transport all the things needed between the Legion's camp grounds. Old Oswestry, and its relationship to these forts, is colored pink. My Celtic ancestors had utilized this hill fort for all their regular life activities prior to the arrival of all this new, dynamic activity, called Roman administration. Their (my Celtic ancestors) camping ground would certainly change. 

Bread and Butter

      After all the meats from the sheep, pigs, calves, and oxen have been ordered, it would seem appropriate to augment the menu with some bread and butter. Now bread depended on a lot of wheat, and some good ovens. The Cornovii were specialist at growing wheat at their home base on the lowlands. This had been the location to the farms and plowed fields for generations of my Celtic ancestors.  Ovens (kiln) had been a steady part of this activity for many generations. This wheat growing had become such an important part of their livelihood that some of the earliest coins of the Celtic culture made its debut.

      Here it is! The gold coin of Cunobelinus. Used as a symbol on this coin, it is thought to represent the ear of barley. Wheat on the back of a coin. [Not sure I have seen this before?] It is discussed in both the book by Jones and Mattingly p.53, and the book by Salway p.32. The front side (heads)  shows the name belinus (CVNO) and a horse. The horse being one of the most prized possessions.

       Pass the butter please.

Where's The Meat

       What would be on your menu for 6,000 military folks coming for dinner from Deva? Oh yes, there would be an additional 6,000 empty stomachs just down the road from Wroxeter asking "Where's the meat?" Caesar's salad was a go some years back [post May 10 last month], but you would need some real meat to feed all these guys. This was one of the questions that I ask along the long trail of ancestor searching. How did my Celtic ancestors adjust to all these empty stomachs, and still survive to live another day?

      The last post gives a reference to a book that discusses many of the factors that came into play. Not just a few factors, but everything asked by me during my many, many years of Jones surname research. The following table is found on page 231, Map 6:48, in the comprehensive Atalas by Barri Jones (no known relationship), and David Mattingly. Just take a look from 50 AD through 350 AD to help answer the question, "Where's the meat?"

      Leg of lamb would be first on the menu starting around 50 AD. Probably from the fact that my Celtic ancestors keep a lot of sheep going from the highlands to the lowlands. The young of the domesticated cows kept around the farms were added to the menu by 100 AD. This was when the military assault into northwest Wales was completed, bring two Legions to the dinner table. [12 - 15 thousand men!] The Ox and pig also began showing their contributions.  Now horses were probably not to be eaten because of their value to all those men of the calvary. I guess they were kept in large numbers around those military bases when needed for rapid movement. The menu seems to be much the same after all the roads and military bases were formalized.

Maps, Maps, and More Maps

       The land of my Celtic ancestors underwent many, many changes after the invasion of those Roman folks. Beginning after the first 100 years of Roman conquest, the dust started to settle, giving 300 years of changes made to the surface anatomy of the land that my ancestors had occupied 500 years before. The book by Barri Jones and David Mattingly named An Atlas Of Roman Britain, gives all the maps that one could image showing the political and military story of these changes. Economic activity such as mining and pottery, in the context of life in the towns and country, are depicted. The Celts would face many new adventures. The cover of my copy is shown as follows:

      The illustration on the cover is a medieval copy of a Roman map of Britain. It is taken from the Notitia Dignitatum contained in the Bodleian Library, Oxford, England.

       To find a single map that summarizes most of the changes that occurred during the time of Roman occupation has been difficult to discover. However, the following map depicts many of the changes giving a "big picture". It comes from the book discussed last post by Peter Blair, p, 59.  Let's take a look.

    First, locate the two Celtic tribes that my Y-DNA seems to have its origin. The Deceangli on the highlands of the west side of the land bridge, and the Cornovii on the eastern side.  The dark square blocks represent the locations of the Roman forts that help occupy, control, and administrate the Roman world as it developed. Deva (Chester) was the fort that my Deceangli would have to interact, and Worxeter was the military base that the Cornovii would have to give their attention. Salt and iron production centered on Deva, and wheat and wool would focus around Worxeter. The Roman roads connected the two forts giving control of the waterways to the sea. [The Dee to the north, and the Severn to the south.] Old Oswestry is just about in the middle of things. This location served as the community center of my Celtic ancestors the 500 years before these Roman changes came into existence. This map helps understand the stage that was built during the 300 years that my Celtic ancestors had to dance.

Jones B., Mattingly D.: An Atlas Of Roman Britain, Oxbow Books, Park End Place, Oxford, 2002. [First published by Blackwell Publishers, 1990]

Blair, P.H.: Roman Britain and Early England, W.W. Norton & Company, N.Y., 1963.

World Turned Up-side Down

      For most of the first 500 years my Celtic ancestors who reached their world's end... [In a geographic sense, see last post.]... occupied their family's land, lived, loved, reproduced, responded to multiple threats, and grew as the years went along. Legends and traditions developed around their small collection of settlements to be centered around a common place of refuge on a hilltop. A sameness of blood, and the descent from a common ancestor gave rise to kin groups. An aggregate of families formed tribal groups sharing language and customs which was the social glue that bonded one generation to the next. Little did anyone guess their world would be turned up-side down.

      Say what? During the next 400 years you Romans plan to ship over from Gaul (France) four huge military units of roughly 6,000 men each. Let's see, invade, kill off those who oppose, claim the land, take the resources, and control every tribe who remains? You want to be fed, housed, entertained, clothed, and maintain all these new folks in their new bricked walled military forts? You've got to be kidding? A militaristic society that speaks the language called Latin, and you expect us to figure out how to survive? A whole bunch of strangers you want to flop down upon us? Our domestic reality in a new political world it is going to be? No wonder our world will be turned up-side down.

      A comprehensive discussion of this "Romanization" can be found in the book by Salway, chapter 18, titled "The Assimilation of Britian", pp. 337-367. The cover of my copy is shown in post dated May 7. Also, an enjoyable read on these complex issues can be read in Roman Britian and Early England, by Peter Blair, first published by The Norton Library, London in 1963. The cover of my copy is shown.

      Chapter 5, pp.90-113, discusses the town life and the Provincial Roman government that played an important role in my Celtic ancestors "Romanization". Chapter 6 is titled "The Countryside in Roman Britian", pp.114-135. Raising corn, cattle, and sheep, which my Celtic ancestors knew something about.

World's End

       It has been difficult to imagine the changes my Celtic ancestors faced during the first 100 years of Roman invasion. [By now you know I have a lot of that imagine thing.] Certainly, many in the family must have thought their world was coming to an end. When finding a map which identifies "World's End", it made me think of the Roman military revolt that came from fear of this very real concern. They were about to be transported to the unknown, and they were concerned about the end of their world. You have seen these maps in previous posts but, my Celtic ancestors lived around this area of the world.

      Looking again around this area, you will see the geographic location "World's End". It is enclosed by the green markings which ends southward toward Old Oswestry hillfort. My Jones family followed this pathway over many generations, much, much, much later. [Long way to go before we get to those stories.] Offa's Dyke is outlined in purple, and Wat's Dyke follows the orange colors. Notice how the two dykes come together near, you guessed it, Old Oswestry Hillfort! Now the following shows an enlargement of this drawing to give you another view of the surrounding named present day names.

      The Vale of Llangollen (the Dee) is central to this location. Many of these locations were involved with my Celtic ancestors, followed by my JONES ancestors. Here is an image that was hand made by the Welsh thread (wool) of Llangollen as I walked these paths myself.

Red Hair/Curly Hair, But Backward

      More than 2000 years ago, this fellow named Tacitus wrote his observations about my Celtic ancestors.  Red hair and large limbs were from Caledonia (Scottish), and curly hair with dark complexion were from the Iberian race (certainly Celtic). The following pictures are from my present-day

Celtic family.  Speaking of red hair! This is my JONES (Welsh/Iberian) family through my Y-chromosome. An autosomal recessive gene carried on chromosome 16. (tagged MC1R) A mutation of this gene is felt to have occurred, which caused it not to be able to breakdown certain chemicals. If one parent carries this mutated gene, it will be expressed when it is joined by another who transmits this mutation. Thus on my father's side both parents (Grandfather/Grandmother to me) must carry this recessive trait.  Can you believe all five children with red hair? Knowing red hair is considered fairly rare among the human race (Scotland around 13%) and Ireland a close second, what is the chance that all in the family would be red headed?

      The next picture is of my mother's (X-chromosome). Curly hair and dark complexion is the norm. Her maidan name was Ewen and, she was one of a dozen! A Scottish surname indeed. 

      Say what? My JONES gene (Welsh) is red headed, and my EWEN side (Caledonia) is curly hair and dark complexion. Did Tacitus get this backward? Well anyway, 2000 years is enough time to mix these genes in a variety of combinations.

 

Tacitus (II)

      The writing of Tacitus continues as regards my Celtic ancestors.

       "Who were the original inhabitants of Britain, whether they were indigenous or foreign, is, as usual among barbarians, little known. Their physical characteristics are various, and from these conclusions may be drawn. The red hair and large limbs of the inhabitants of Caledonia point clearly to a German origin. The dark complexion of the Silures, their usually curly hair, and the fact that Spain is the opposite shore to them, are an evidence that Iberians of a former date crossed over and occupied these parts. Those who are nearest to the Gauls are also like them, either from the permanent influence of original descent, or, because in countries which run out so far to meet each other, climate has produced similar physical qualities. But a general survey inclines me to believe that the Gauls established themselves in an island so near to them."

      A little of this, and a little of that.  Let's see, red hair and large limbs would be the Scots. [Caledonia] Not German but Celtic they are. [The Romans had not seen all the red hair in Ireland.] Dark complexion and curly hair would certainly fit my family group. Iberians is certainly correct.  A theory that the Gauls established themselves in an island so near to them would be a sound suggestion from the first 100 years of a new millennium!

      Taken from Mellor, p.399. Complete reference is given post 30 April.

Tacitus (1)

      A fellow named Publius (or Gaius) Cornelius Tacitus, ca.55 - 117 A.D., [wow, try saying that three times in a row] wrote his own view of my Celtic ancestors around 98 A.D. He was the son-in-law to Agricola, the Roman general who is credited with the final conquest of Britian.  His first writings, of course was named Life of Agricola, gives his personal view of the island.

      "The geography and inhabitants of Britain, already described by many writers, I will speak of, not that my research and ability may be compared with theirs, but because the country was then for the first time thoroughly subdued. And so matters, which as being still not accurately known my predecessors embellished with their eloquence, shall now be related on the evidence of facts." A picture of  Caesar Augustus is shown on the cover of this edition of his second book titled The Annals of Imperial Rome translated by Michael Grant, 1956. [The most famous history book of the Roman world.]

      His comments continue:

      "Britain, the largest of the islands which Roman geography includes, is so situated that it faces Germany on the east, Spain on the west; on the south it is even within sight of Gaul; its northern extremities, which have no shores opposite to them, are beaten by the waves of the sea. The form of the entire country has been compared by Livy and Fabius Rusticus, the most graphic among ancient and modern historians, to an oblong shield or battle axe."

       These quotes are taken from The Historians of Ancient Rome, by Ronald Mellor, p.398. [Book shown in previous post 30 April.]

Note: The cover shows a photo of the statue of Caesar Augustus, not of Tacitus.

Caesar's Salad

       Julius Caesar came 55 B.C., he looked again 54 B.C., and Claudius came to conquer 43 A.D. It must have been one of those Roman things. All this invasion stuff was a very complicated endeavor transporting four Roman legions with all their contraptions some 20 miles across the water from Gaul (France) to Britain. Can you imagine the task? Claudius had his own problems when the Legions refused to go to this end of the world. This was thought literally "the end of the world", since most of these folks regarded Britian as geographically the last place on earth before the great beyond.  John Peddie in his book Invasion, The Roman Conquest of Britain, published 1987, gives an insightful discussion of this process I would call Caesar's salad. The cover designed by Martin Latham is shown below.

     The first landing in 43 A.D. began in the southeast, and then to the settlement of London. From here things headed north to Lincoln 48 B.C., then southwest to Dorchester area, and then to my Celtic ancestor's part of their end of this world. The assault on Anglesey was 61 A.D. All things were viewed by Julius Agricola as being conquered by 84 A.D. Just think, native farms, to Villas, and to a new existence as an urban society. What a deal, or not. What was to become of being mixed up in this Caesar's salad?

Roman Britain

       My Celtic ancestors certainly did not anticipate the dramatic changes that were to occur to their existence during the years to come. From circular defended family farms to community shared, much larger, and well defended hillforts, their dispersed kin groups developed, matured, and survived for their first 500 years. The next 500 years brough dynamic changes to their lives, and a cultural adjustment to daily activities. The complex world of the Roman empire was about to intervene during their next experience of this thing called life. Their homeland [the Decangli and Cornovii] would be adjusted to a more normal state of affairs according to the new land owners. To adapt or to disappear were the choices presented. There were needs to achieve mental and behavioral balance between their own needs and the demands of the new administrators. 

      The best text that discusses this period of time (my own opinion) is The Oxford Illustrated History of Roman Britain. It is written by Peter Salway, 1993, and presents a detailed chronology of events surrounding my Celtic ancestors. The cover of my copy is shown:

      It contains 10 maps (who would guess I like maps?), 320 illustrations, 24 full colored plates, a list of Roman Emperors, and a detailed chronology of events. A good read on the topic it is.

Salway, P., The Oxford Illustrated History Of Roman Britain, Oxford University Press, Oxford & N.Y., 1993.

Sacrifices

      The words of Julius Caesar continues as translated in the text by Mellor (p.142). The cover to this book is shown in a previous post of April 30.

      "The nation of all Gauls is extremely devoted to superstitious rites; and on that account they who are troubled with unusually severe diseases, and they who are engaged in battles and dangers, either sacrifice men as victims, or vow that they will sacrifice them, and employ the Druids as the performers of those sacrifices; because they think that unless the life of a man be offered for the life of a man, the mind of the immortal gods can not be rendered propitious, and they have sacrifices of that kind ordained for national purposes..".  Wow, human sacrifices! The following book shows the cover of what is judged to be one of those sacrifices.

      Anne Ross and Don Robin describe their interpretation of such a finding named "Lindow Man". Their work followed the initial research program by the British Museum called (The Body in the Bog), 1986. [Author's Note, p.7] They draw a map on p. 93 which shows the location of the bog, and its relationship to Old Oswestry and the land bridge discussed in many of my prior posts.

      This map should bring to mind many of my previous maps which demonstrate these geographic locations. The Roman locations are depicted to be around 60 A.D. The Cornovii (my Celtic ancestors) would seem to be the major folks involved. The Romans had their impact on my Celtic family for the next 500 years.